How our ancestors used mushrooms to change the course of human history

Last updated: March 11, 2026 3:55 am

Because they must be there, we just can’t find them. It’s like trying to look for a needle in a haystack.

Stonytė’s analysis of the isotopic values of mushroom species native to Lithuania has shown that they could have been a significant part of ancient European diets. “They would have been an important source of protein and fibre, which would have been useful for people living in the northern part of Europe,” she says. “Even today, we know that mushrooms are an important part of the diet in that area.”

Weyrich’s team has also shown that mushrooms were eaten by prehistoric Europeans. In 2019, they analysed the dental plaque of a 5,300-year-old corpse found in Spain, revealing that the ancient woman had consumed two types of mushrooms: the common puffball and the red cage fungus. “The common puffball is a fungal species that is quite widely distributed and is still commonly consumed in Spain today,” says Weyrich. “It’s likely that they were eating the exact same types of mushrooms back then.”

The rise of mushroom farming

While the Neolithic period, which began around 12,000 years ago, brought the advent of agriculture, the role that fungi played in the transformation from hunter-gatherer to farmer has only recently been uncovered.

“The Neolithic revolution is one of the most profound changes that humanity has gone through,” says Penny Bickle at the University of Sheffield in the UK. “It’s when people settled down and started to farm crops and animals, and it’s also when they started to build monuments like Stonehenge. It’s a period of immense social change.”

Li Liu’s research at Stanford has shown that mushrooms were a key part of this social change. In 2016, she and her team analysed the dental calculus of prehistoric people from the central Chinese region of the Yellow River Basin, revealing that they consumed both fungal plant pathogens and edible mushrooms. The plant pathogens could have threatened crops, while the edible mushrooms could have been a valuable food source. “This is the first time that people are finding these things in the archaeological record,” says Liu.

It is possible that the ancient farmers harnessed the power of fungi to domesticate plants. “Archaeological evidence has shown that people were cultivating plants like rice and millet, so they must have had some knowledge about fungi,” says Liu. “They might have started by observing which mushrooms grew near wild plants, and then they would have started to cultivate those plants and mushrooms together.

“We know that some mushrooms can be used to control plant diseases, so they might have figured out that by planting these mushrooms next to their crops, they could protect them from pests and diseases,” says Liu. “In this way, fungi could have been a key part of the development of agriculture.”

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Fungi could have been a key part of the development of agriculture.

While archaeological evidence of mushroom cultivation is scant, the discovery of fungal DNA and micro-residues in the teeth and tools of ancient farmers is helping to fill in the blanks. “When we look at the changes in the genome of rice and millet from the Neolithic era, we can see that they were adapting to living with humans,” says Liu. “This could have been due to human selection, but it could also have been because of the fungi that were living in and around their crops.”

“It’s a really exciting time to be an archaeologist,” says Weyrich. “We’re starting to see the ways in which we can use these new tools to look at the past from a completely different perspective. Fungi have been a missing piece of the puzzle, and now we’re starting to see how important they were to our ancestors.”

about the importance of fungi in ancient human diets. The use of mushrooms by ancient humans has long been a topic of interest for researchers. While it is challenging to identify specific mushroom species from isotope data alone, some fungi, such as Boletus mushrooms, have been identified as potential candidates for ancient human consumption. Boletus mushrooms, also known as porcini, have nitrogen values similar to meat, making them a likely source of nutrition for early humans.

Recent discoveries have shed light on the role of mushrooms in prehistoric diets. In 2015, spores from Boletus mushrooms were found in the dental plaque of Palaeolithic humans in Spain, providing evidence of their consumption. This finding prompted researchers to reconsider isotopic signals previously attributed to meat consumption, suggesting that mushrooms may have played a more significant role in ancient diets than previously thought.

One of the most compelling pieces of evidence for prehistoric mushroom use comes from the discovery of fire fungi in Yorkshire. At the Mesolithic site of Star Carr, researchers found 82 ancient mushrooms, with 76 identified as Fomes fomentarius, also known as the tinder fungus. These fungi were processed into a flammable material called amadou, which was used for starting fires and staying warm while on the move.

The presence of processed fungi at archaeological sites across Europe, including Spain, Denmark, Germany, and Russia, suggests that portable pyro-technology was in use as far back as 11,000 years ago. The discovery of amadou alongside Ötzi the Iceman, who lived 5300 years ago in the Italian Alps, further confirms the importance of mushrooms in prehistoric cultures. Ötzi carried dried birch polypore mushrooms, which researchers believe he may have used for medicinal purposes.

Overall, the archaeological record provides compelling evidence for the use of mushrooms by ancient humans. From the consumption of Boletus mushrooms to the processing of tinder fungi for fire-starting, mushrooms played a vital role in prehistoric diets and technologies. These discoveries highlight the ingenuity and resourcefulness of early human societies and offer valuable insights into their daily lives and survival strategies. This accidental fermentation process not only made rice more nutritious but also gave rise to a new social lubricant that brought communities together in celebration and cooperation.

Similar fungal interactions may have played a crucial role in Ötzi’s world. The birch polypore’s antimicrobial properties, for instance, could have helped to preserve food in a time before refrigeration. Villani’s experiments with the mushroom suggest that it could have been used to store fish, honey, or other perishable items, extending their usability and nutritional value.

Furthermore, Ötzi’s community likely used fungi for medicinal purposes. The anti-parasitic and immune-boosting properties of birch polypore would have been invaluable in a time when infectious diseases posed a significant threat to survival. Puffballs, with their spore-filled interiors, may have been used to staunch bleeding wounds, prevent infections, or even treat respiratory ailments.

As we continue to uncover the multifaceted roles that fungi played in ancient human societies, it becomes increasingly clear that these organisms were not mere background players in our evolutionary story. They were active participants, shaping our diets, our medicines, and our social interactions in profound ways that we are only beginning to understand.

By shedding new light on Ötzi’s use of fungi, Mariana Villani’s research challenges us to reconsider our assumptions about the past and to recognize the rich and complex relationships that have long existed between humans and fungi. In doing so, we may gain a deeper appreciation for the role that these humble organisms have played in shaping the course of human history.

Liu and her team’s groundbreaking discovery of a two-stage fungal fermentation process in residues adhering to 10,000-year-old pottery has rewritten the history books on the earliest rice beer in East Asia. Using sophisticated microscopy techniques, the researchers identified fragmentary pieces of Monascus on the ancient vessels, along with starch granules showing signs of enzymatic attack. These findings shed light on the early stages of alcohol production and its role in the development of ancient communities.

The process, known as red qu, was previously believed to have originated around 2000 years ago based on textual records. However, Liu’s team’s discovery pushes back the timeline significantly, revealing that beer production dates back much further than previously thought. This indicates that alcohol production coincided with the rise of rice cultivation and the establishment of farming villages, suggesting that booze played a central role in the development of early societies.

The presence of red qu on pottery vessels found in burial pits suggests a connection between beer production and mortuary practices. This cultural tradition likely helped to strengthen social bonds, reinforce lineage, and establish cultural identities within these early communities. The use of fungi in alcohol production highlights a lesser-known aspect of human evolution and the importance of these microbial organisms in shaping ancient societies.

While archaeology has traditionally focused on more durable and visible monuments, such as megalithic structures, the study of fungi provides a new perspective on the role of less conspicuous elements in human history. Just as Stonehenge served to connect Neolithic communities to their land, red qu-based alcohol enhanced rituals that bound people to specific places and groups. This underscores the significance of fungi in shaping cultural practices and community dynamics throughout history.

As researchers continue to uncover the importance of fungi in ancient societies, it becomes clear that these microbial organisms played a crucial role in human evolution and the development of civilisation. The hidden kingdom of fungi, long overlooked in archaeological studies, is now emerging as a vital component in understanding the complexities of our past. By acknowledging the contributions of fungi to human history, we gain a deeper appreciation for the interconnectedness of all living organisms on Earth. Water is one of the most important resources on Earth, essential for all forms of life. However, with growing populations and increased industrialization, the demand for clean water is higher than ever before. According to the World Health Organization, over 2 billion people worldwide do not have access to clean drinking water, leading to waterborne diseases and other health issues.

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