In marinas, female mud snails are exhibiting male reproductive traits. Florida’s alligators, affected by pesticide-laden lakes, are experiencing hormonal disruptions and being born with smaller reproductive organs. Additionally, rising temperatures in nesting sands are leading to predominantly female sea turtle populations. These same chemicals causing wildlife disruptions are now detectable in human placentas, testes, and semen. A newly peer-reviewed study compiles this evidence for the first time.
A comprehensive cross-species review, published on April 23 in npj Emerging Contaminants by Oregon State University’s Susanne Brander and Mount Sinai’s Shanna Swan, consolidates findings from various animal groups like invertebrates, fish, birds, reptiles, amphibians, marine mammals, rodents, and humans. The primary conclusion is that pollution and climate change have become the leading causes of biodiversity loss. The chemicals implicated—phthalates, bisphenols, PFAS, and microplastics—are reducing fertility and reproductive success in numerous species, humans included.
Out of more than 140,000 synthetic chemicals registered under the EU’s REACH chemical safety regulation, only about 1% have undergone adequate safety testing, and over 1,000 are recognized as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Each year, over 2,000 new chemicals are introduced globally. The review’s authors note that these chemicals can be potent at very low concentrations, likening them to “a whisper that is powerful enough to redirect a hurricane.” Given the similarity of the endocrine system across vertebrates, scientists have used fish as predictors of effects on mammals, making the human-related findings in the review unsurprising when compared to wildlife effects.
The article sheds light on the interaction between climate change and chemical exposure. Increased temperatures have been found to exacerbate endocrine disruption. For some fish species, the combination of heat and EDCs alters sex ratios more severely than either factor alone. At the world’s largest green turtle rookery, nearly all hatchlings are now female. In humans, an 80-year analysis of U.S. birth data linked hotter weather to reduced conception rates. Other research indicates that higher temperatures correlate with decreased semen volume, sperm count, and quality.
Plastics Aren’t Inert and “BPA-Free” Doesn’t Mean Safe
The study highlights the reproductive toxicity of microplastics and nanoplastics, recently recognized as such. In 2021, microplastics were discovered in human placentas. In 2023, another study detected microplastics in human testis and semen samples. A subsequent study found microplastics in every canine and human testis examined, with higher concentrations in humans. Several studies in the review indicate that polystyrene microplastics reduce fertility, fertilization, and hatching rates in fish, with effects persisting across generations.
The issue of chemical substitution is crucial. While older PFAS chemicals like PFOA have largely been replaced, their substitutes, such as GenX chemicals and similar compounds, exhibit equal or even stronger estrogen-like effects in laboratory tests. BPA alternatives like BPS and BPF behave similarly on hormones. The review also notes that bio-based plastics like polylactic acid (PLA) cause reproductive harm in earthworms, akin to conventional polyethylene. This pattern of “regrettable substitution,” where a banned chemical is replaced by a similar, unregulated one causing the same harm, is well-documented.
The PFAS Picture, in 2026
PFAS require special attention as regulatory landscapes shift. EPA’s recent water testing data reveals that approximately 176 million Americans consume tap water contaminated with at least one PFAS compound. The CDC has detected PFAS in the blood of 99% of Americans tested, including newborns. PFAS are now linked to abnormal sperm in Arctic seabirds, dogs, and human cohort studies. A recent systematic review of 30 studies involving nearly 28,000 participants found moderately elevated odds of infertility related to PCOS and endometriosis associated with PFAS exposure.
The federal regulatory response is controversial. The EPA established the first national drinking water limits for six PFAS in 2024, setting PFOA and PFOS at 4 parts per trillion. In May 2025, the agency announced it would maintain these limits but extend the compliance deadline to 2031 and remove limits on four other PFAS. In January 2026, the D.C. Circuit denied EPA’s request to summarily vacate these four limits; final briefs are due this spring, with a decision expected in the latter half of 2026. Meanwhile, individual filtration remains the only consumer-level method to remove PFAS from existing tap water.
Individual efforts alone cannot resolve such a significant issue. The review emphasizes the need for comprehensive regulatory changes addressing entire classes of chemicals, not just individual ones. Nevertheless, personal exposure can be reduced through a few effective steps, prioritized by impact rather than ease of implementation.
Drinking Water: This Is Where to Start
- Begin by assessing your water. Enter your ZIP code into EWG’s Tap Water Database to learn what contaminants are present in your local supply. You can also use the EPA’s PFAS Analytic Tools for additional information. If you use a private well, have it tested by an EPA-certified lab. Mail-in kits from SimpleLab and Cyclopure range from $85 to $300.
- Use a filter for your tap water. Opt for filters certified to NSF/ANSI 53 (carbon-based) or NSF/ANSI 58 (reverse osmosis) to reduce PFAS. Be cautious of the marketing term “tested to NSF standards,” as it can be misleading; ensure your filter is truly certified. Reverse osmosis and granular activated carbon are effective, but most pitcher and refrigerator filters lack PFAS certification.
- Replace filter cartridges promptly. EWG senior scientist Tasha Stoiber warns that a spent filter can release more PFAS than untreated tap water. Adhering to the maintenance schedule is crucial for protection.
- Avoid using bottled water as a long-term solution. A 2024 Columbia University study found about 240,000 plastic particles per liter in bottled water, a figure 10 to 100 times higher than previous estimates. Approximately 90% of these particles are nanoplastics.
Food Contact Materials
- Avoid heating food in plastic containers. Heating increases the likelihood of phthalates leaching out. Use glass or ceramic in the microwave. If reusing plastic food containers, avoid subjecting them to the dishwasher’s high-heat cycle.
- Limit takeout and fast food consumption when possible. A 2016 study revealed that individuals consuming more fast food had higher levels of phthalate metabolites in their urine, likely from plastic gloves, wraps, and containers. Maine will ban PFAS in food packaging starting in May 2026, with a broader ban by 2030. Other states are following suit, but for now, reducing plastic-wrapped meals lowers exposure.
- Replace nonstick cookware if chipped or scratched, as it releases particles into food. Stainless steel and cast iron offer durable alternatives. Nonstick pans are unsuitable for high-heat cooking, like searing.
- Store food in glass or stainless steel containers. This simple change prevents the release of microplastics and phthalates and ensures longevity. Replace plastic containers only when they break or stain, rather than purchasing new ones.
- Be cautious when products list “fragrance” on the label. Diethyl phthalate (DEP) often functions as a fragrance carrier and doesn’t require separate listing under U.S. rules; it appears as “fragrance” or “parfum.” Choose products that list all fragrance ingredients or are certified EWG VERIFIED or EPA Safer Choice.
- Remove plug-in air fresheners, which are high in phthalates, and opt for ventilation instead.
- Eliminate vinyl shower curtains. The “new shower curtain” scent is due to phthalates released from PVC. Cotton, hemp, and PEVA shower curtains are readily available and similarly priced.
- Inspect cleaning products for parabens, triclosan, and APEs. EWG’s Guide to Healthy Cleaning rates products based on an EDC database. Laundry detergent and fabric softener residues remain on clothes, contacting skin for hours, thus exposure accumulates quickly.
- Be wary of plastic toys labeled with codes 3, 6, or 7, particularly for young children who mouth toys. Code 3 is PVC, containing phthalates. Code 6 is polystyrene. Code 7 is a broad category often including polycarbonate, a source of BPA. Safer alternatives include wood, natural rubber, organic cotton, and silicone.
Stop Pesticides at the Property Line
- Reconsider using pyrethroid-based treatments for your home or lawn. Bifenthrin, a prevalent pesticide in the U.S., disrupts estrogen receptors in fish at levels commonly found in urban runoff. The review also notes that individuals with higher pyrethroid metabolite levels in their urine tend to have lower semen quality and more sperm DNA damage. If hiring a pest control service, inquire about active ingredients and request safer alternatives.
- Opt for organic produce with high pesticide residues. EWG’s Shopper’s Guide to Pesticides in Produce (the “Dirty Dozen” / “Clean Fifteen”) helps prioritize organic choices where they matter most, rather than viewing the produce aisle as all-or-nothing.
Where Individual Action Stops Working
The review’s authors stress that consumer choices alone are insufficient. These chemicals appear even in Arctic rainwater, can cross the placenta, and persist for centuries in the environment. They propose coordinated regulatory action: a robust Global Plastics Treaty targeting harmful chemicals, not just plastics; regulations covering entire chemical classes; and measures holding polluters accountable for cleanup costs, rather than burdening utilities and consumers.
The review examines various species to illustrate that the effects observed in snails, alligators, and seabirds are mirrored in humans, albeit at a different pace. Wildlife data has been alerting us for four decades, and human data is now beginning to reflect similar patterns.
