The GreenDrill expedition, funded by the Pulitzer Center, embarked on a mission to uncover the secrets hidden beneath Greenland’s ice sheet. As the drilling rig whirred inside their tent, the team of experts braved the harsh conditions to reach the bedrock below.
Situated on the edge of the Northeast Greenland Ice Stream (NEGIS), the GreenDrill site held vital clues about the ice sheet’s stability. The NEGIS, a massive glacier that drains a significant portion of the ice sheet into the ocean, plays a crucial role in global sea level rise. As concerns about the accelerated retreat of the ice sheet grow, scientists are racing to understand the mechanisms driving this alarming trend.
The team’s efforts were not in vain, as they finally reached the bedrock after overcoming numerous logistical challenges and setbacks. Elliot Moravec, the mechanical engineer, monitored the drill-fluid pressure gauge with cautious optimism. The core extracted from the bedrock promised to reveal a snapshot of Greenland’s ancient past, offering valuable insights into the ice sheet’s history and vulnerability.
Against the backdrop of geopolitical tensions and climate change, Greenland has become a focal point of international interest. The desire to exploit its natural resources has long been a driving force behind American involvement in the region. From early expeditions by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to Alfred Wegener’s pioneering research, Greenland’s icy depths have captivated the scientific community for decades.
As the GreenDrill team delved deeper into Greenland’s frozen heart, they were following in the footsteps of those who came before them. Their quest for knowledge was not just a scientific endeavor but a testament to humanity’s insatiable curiosity and determination to unlock the mysteries of our planet. Through their work, they hoped to shed light on the fragile balance of Greenland’s ice sheet and the urgent need to protect it for future generations. The location where SIPRE pulled those first deep ice cores from was called Site 2, and despite its public science mission, it was also a top-secret radar installation watching 24-7 for Soviet threats. But the tense geopolitics allowed a scientific discovery that, until then, had seemed impossible: the recovery of deep ice cores that kicked off an international race to recover and interrogate deeper and deeper ice. Those ice cores, and all that would be collected after them, became a kind of high-resolution climatological bedrock on which much of our understanding of rapid climate change rests.
Although it is difficult to count the number of ice cores in existence, adding up the length of ice in just the freezers owned by Denmark (Greenland is an autonomous territory of the Kingdom of Denmark) and the U.S. gives you more than 21 miles of ancient ice. Researchers have dated them, measured the pressure of their enclosed air bubbles, characterized the structure of their snow, detected ancient volcanic cataclysms in their particulate content, and more. The results have given us an indirect way to track the timing of large and abrupt shifts in climate as far back as 123,000 years ago in the case of Greenland and 1.2 million years ago for ice extracted from Antarctica. “They are basically a backbone of climate science in terms of giving us these continuous, high-resolution climate records,” says Joerg Schaefer, GreenDrill’s co-principal investigator.
I have a personal 25-year history with one of these backbones. As an undergraduate researcher, I lived for a month on an oceanographic research vessel off Baja California. The mission was to collect sediment cores from the ocean floor. I spent hours and hours taking measurements—more than 30,000 of them—with my face pressed close to stinking, methane-rich mud.
Like ice cores, the sediment cores had visible horizontal bands. Ice cores’ bands come from seasonal variations in snowfall; in this marine mud, the winter sediment from above showed up one color, the summer sediment another. I used a measurement technique that allowed me to pull a climate signal out of the alternating light and dark bands. But to confirm that those climate wiggles were real, I had to try to match what I saw with other records that climatologists were really sure showed a strong connection to the hot and cold climate swings of the past; enter Greenland’s ice cores.
In 1999, when I was doing my research, the gold standards for such climate-record wiggle matching were ice cores from the Greenland Ice Sheet Project 2 (GISP2) or from the Greenland Ice Core Project (GRIP). These two projects were a kind of friendly arms race between two different teams—one led by scientists in the U.S. (GISP2), the other by researchers in Europe (GRIP)—but without all the cold war skulduggery. Starting at nearly the same time (the Americans got a one-field-season jump on the Europeans), the two projects, less than 20 miles from each other near the summit of the Greenland ice sheet, raced to the bottom of the ice.
In July 1992 Europe won. That team reached the bed nearly 10,000 feet below the surface and stopped at the end of the ice. When the U.S. group finished a year later, not only did its core reach deeper than 10,000 feet, but the scientists were also able to collect a five-foot-long core of some of the rarest rock in the world—rock from under an ice sheet.
These two deep climatic records became standards to benchmark other records against. My mud record stretched from the present back to about 52,000 years ago. I could take that record of wiggles from dark (cold world above) to light (warmer world above) and see whether the same temperature-related wiggles pulled from the ice core matched up. They did.
Many other climate researchers saw the same thing. In the three decades since these two cores were pulled from the ice sheet, tree rings, coral, cave deposits, other sediments and ice cores from across the world have all been successfully wiggle-matched to the records.
But in all the years researchers spent hunting for ice and finding out all they could about its nature, they mostly neglected to interrogate the stuff the ice is sitting on. That is a critical gap in our knowledge that is just waiting to be closed. “Those bed materials, whether it’s sediment or hard bedrock contained within it, are the words, the stories of the history of the ice sheet—it’s a book of information down there that we want to read,” says Jason Briner of the University at Buffalo, the other co-principal investigator of GreenDrill. “The bedrock under ice sheets is the least explored remaining zone on Earth’s surface,” Schaefer says. “These are moon rocks for us—the most rare and the most hard-to-drill surface rocks anywhere on Earth—and we have practically no direct observations.”
Schaefer and Briner have spent more than a decade fixated on this deep gap in climate science. What they have already found is sobering. The data that terrify Schaefer come from the rock collected in 1993 under the GISP2 ice core. The ice core was sent off to be immortalized in thousands of research papers as a centerpiece of climate science, while the bedrock was stored in cold storage in the U.S. ice-core repository in Colorado. After almost two decades, in 2016, Schaefer, Briner, and their collaborators exhumed the rock core to read it like a buried history book. They published a research paper in Nature entitled “Greenland Was Nearly Ice-Free for Extended Periods during the Pleistocene.”
The Pleistocene, a period that includes the last ice age, spanned from around 2.6 million to 11,000 years ago, a time when woolly mammoths, saber-toothed cats, and the first modern humans roamed over earth and ice. From that one sub-ice rock core, the researchers learned that during that epoch, there were periods – at least one, possibly many – when the ice sheet was completely gone or nearly so. Schaefer remarks, “You do one data point, bedrock underneath the thickest part of the Greenland ice sheet, so you basically have to melt the entire ice sheet to make that spot ice-free. Even there, the bedrock was telling us, ‘Hell, yes, I was ice-free a lot over the last geological period.’”
“It started what some people like to call the fragile Greenland hypothesis,” says Paul Bierman, an author and geoscientist at the University of Vermont. Bierman and others have found additional evidence to support this concerning idea. In 2023, he and his colleagues published a study showing “multiple lines of evidence” indicating that much of northwestern Greenland was ice-free around 400,000 years ago when the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was less than 300 parts per million, compared to the current 428 parts per million.
The GreenDrill team is gearing up to release new findings that are even more alarming for humanity. Caleb Walcott-George, soon to be an assistant professor at the University of Kentucky, presented solid evidence at a recent academic conference. His research shows that an area in northwestern Greenland, three times the size of New York City, and currently covered by ice a third of a mile thick, was either completely or nearly ice-free as recently as about 7,000 years ago. This corresponds with a time known as the Holocene Thermal Maximum when temperatures were only a few degrees warmer on average than they are today, a warming scenario that we might experience by 2100.
Not long after sensing that the drilling rig was close to breaking, the team retrieved its first sample of the season from 165 feet below. Walcott-George and Allie Balter-Kennedy of Tufts University carefully inspected the core sample inside a blacked-out tent. They analyzed the minerals in the rock that act like batteries, charging when buried underground. Radioactive decay in elements surrounding the grains causes the grains to luminesce, helping them determine how long the quartz and feldspar grains have been buried. However, even a brief exposure to sunlight can reset this signal, so the researchers return to the blacked-out tent each time they unearth a piece of rock.
Another source of stored memory in subglacial stones comes from dying stars. The explosions marking a star’s demise throw cosmic rays across the galaxy, which reach Earth and interact with rocks, creating isotopes or nuclides that are not typically found on Earth. By studying the rates at which these nuclides are produced, researchers like Balter-Kennedy can gain insights into the history of the rocks and the changes they have undergone over time. Surface exposure dating is a groundbreaking method used by scientists to determine how long a rock has been exposed to cosmic rays or ice-free conditions. By measuring the total amount of rare isotopes present in a rock sample, researchers can track periods of sun exposure and burial, which create distinct spikes in the nuclide levels. When the rock is exposed to the sun, the clock gains time as isotopes accumulate, and when it is buried, the clock loses time as isotopes decay.
Two common isotopes used in surface exposure dating are beryllium-10 and aluminum-26. By measuring the relative levels of these isotopes along a rock core, scientists can create a decay clock that reveals the rock’s history of sun exposure and burial. This method allows researchers to “interview” the bedrock to understand when it has been ice-free, for how long, and how frequently in the geological past.
During a research expedition led by Allie Balter-Kennedy and Walcott-George, the team encountered a core sample that was not ideal for their study. Instead of finding the smooth bedrock they were looking for, they discovered gravelly ice and dirty ice, indicating that the rock record was not suitable for surface exposure dating. Despite this setback, the team remained determined to try again the following day.
The Greenland ice sheet has lost approximately 5,500,000,000,000 tons of water weight since 2002, contributing to rising sea levels. Scientists are still working to understand how future melting will impact Greenland and the mechanisms behind the disintegration of the ice sheet. While Antarctica’s ice loss is often associated with the collapse of ice shelves, Greenland’s fate is closely tied to its ice streams, which are small tongues of ice surrounding the island.
Researchers like Dorthe Dahl-Jensen have been studying the Greenland ice sheet for decades, witnessing firsthand the effects of climate change on the ice. Recent projects like the East Greenland Ice-Core Project have provided valuable insights into the loss of ice from the Greenland ice sheet. However, there are still many gaps in our understanding of how ice streams behave and contribute to sea-level rise.
The GreenDrill team is focused on obtaining bedrock samples from the Northeast Greenland Ice Stream (NEGIS) to improve mathematical models that simulate ice sheet dynamics. These models are crucial for predicting future sea-level rise and understanding the complex interactions within the Greenland ice sheet. By combining fieldwork, ice core analysis, and modeling, scientists hope to gain a better understanding of how the Greenland ice sheet will respond to ongoing climate change. The team of researchers at the GreenDrill camp in Greenland had their work cut out for them. Their mission was to extract rock cores from under the ice sheet to study the effects of climate change on the region. The data they collected would be crucial in improving ice-sheet models and predicting future sea-level rise.
Despite facing blizzards and extreme weather conditions, the team persevered. They worked tirelessly to drill deep into the ice and extract rock samples for analysis. The researchers were determined to gather as much data as possible to help refine their models and make accurate predictions about the future of the Greenland ice sheet.
One of the key challenges they faced was the unpredictability of the weather. Blizzards would sweep through the camp, forcing them to halt their drilling operations and seek shelter in their tents. But the team remained resilient, pushing through the harsh conditions to complete their research.
The team’s efforts were not in vain. By collecting rock cores from under the ice sheet, they were able to compare the data with samples taken from exposed rock surfaces. This comparison would help them understand how the ice sheet has changed over time and how it might respond to future warming.
The researchers knew that their work was vital for understanding the impact of climate change on Greenland. If the ice sheet were to melt completely, it would have catastrophic consequences for coastal cities and communities around the world. The data they collected would provide valuable insights into how the ice sheet might behave in the future, helping policymakers make informed decisions about mitigating the effects of sea-level rise.
As the team faced yet another blizzard, they knew that their work was far from over. The relentless winds and snowdrifts tested their endurance, but they remained focused on their goal. The researchers were determined to gather as much data as possible to improve our understanding of the Greenland ice sheet and its response to a changing climate.
Despite the challenges they faced, the team at the GreenDrill camp continued their research with dedication and perseverance. Their work was a testament to the importance of collecting real data to inform our understanding of the impacts of climate change. And as they packed up their camp and prepared for extraction, they knew that their efforts would contribute to a better future for our planet. The team at the polar research camp found themselves confined to smaller and smaller spaces as the harsh weather forced them to move from their sleep tent to the mess tent to the bathroom tent and back again. Barbara Olga Hild, the polar bear guard, worked tirelessly to keep the electrified wire fence clear of snow during the long, bright Arctic nights. Walcott-George spent his time in the mess tent brewing strong coffee and tending to his dry, cracked fingers with superglue. Balter-Kennedy focused on patching up her polar bib and meticulously logging core samples, while Moravec and Harmon passed the time playing cribbage.
Despite the challenging conditions, the team members found solace in the isolation and silence of their remote surroundings. For many, the months spent in near-complete isolation were a cherished part of the experience, allowing them to focus solely on their research. The sense of slowing down and concentration was something they missed once they returned to normal life.
After enduring a three-day blizzard, the team eagerly returned to work, with only two days left to complete the new drill hole. With time running out, they worked efficiently to extract the final core sample. As the drill burned through almost 70 feet of ice, the weather cleared, and the team enjoyed unseasonably warm temperatures.
With the final rock core safely extracted, the team celebrated with a cheer and a toast of Danish liqueur. The core was carefully stored for transport, its secrets of Greenland’s past and our future potentially waiting to be revealed. Walcott-George lifted the core like a prized catch, marking the end of a successful drilling season.
As they packed up camp, the team reflected on their time in the Arctic, grateful for the unique experiences and valuable research they had conducted. The memories of the cold, isolation, and hard work would stay with them long after they left the ice, a reminder of the resilience and camaraderie that defined their time in the frozen wilderness. The digital age has revolutionized the way we live, work, and communicate. With the rise of technology, we have seen an exponential increase in the amount of information available at our fingertips. From social media to online shopping, the internet has become an integral part of our daily lives.
One of the most significant changes brought about by the digital age is the way we consume news. Gone are the days of waiting for the morning paper or the evening news broadcast to get updates on current events. With news websites, social media platforms, and mobile apps, we can now access news instantly, anytime, anywhere.
This instant access to news has both positive and negative implications. On the one hand, it allows us to stay informed and up-to-date on the latest developments in the world. We can quickly access breaking news, follow live updates on important events, and read in-depth analysis and commentary on various topics. This wealth of information at our disposal has made it easier for us to make informed decisions and participate in public discourse.
However, the downside of this constant barrage of news is information overload. With so much news available, it can be overwhelming to sift through the noise and discern what is truly important and relevant. The proliferation of fake news and misinformation has also become a major concern, as it can be challenging to separate fact from fiction in the digital age.
Moreover, the rise of algorithm-driven news feeds and personalized content has led to the creation of echo chambers, where individuals are only exposed to information that aligns with their existing beliefs and opinions. This can reinforce biases and limit exposure to diverse perspectives, hindering critical thinking and open-mindedness.
Despite these challenges, the digital age has also brought about new opportunities for journalism. Citizen journalism has enabled ordinary people to report on events and share their perspectives with a global audience. Social media platforms have given a voice to marginalized communities and helped amplify underrepresented voices.
As we navigate the complexities of the digital age, it is essential to be mindful of the sources of information we consume and critically evaluate the news we encounter. By staying informed, engaging with diverse perspectives, and supporting trustworthy journalism, we can harness the power of the digital age to create a more informed and connected society. The world of technology is constantly evolving, with new advancements and innovations being made every day. One of the most exciting developments in recent years is the rise of artificial intelligence (AI). AI is revolutionizing the way we live and work, with applications ranging from self-driving cars to virtual personal assistants.
One of the key areas where AI is having a significant impact is in the field of healthcare. AI has the potential to revolutionize the way medical professionals diagnose and treat patients, leading to more accurate and efficient healthcare outcomes.
One of the main benefits of AI in healthcare is its ability to analyze vast amounts of data in a short amount of time. This can be incredibly useful when it comes to diagnosing complex medical conditions, as AI algorithms can quickly sift through patient data to identify patterns and trends that may not be immediately apparent to human doctors.
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However, the use of AI in healthcare is not without its challenges. Privacy and security concerns are paramount when it comes to storing and analyzing patient data, and there are also ethical considerations to take into account when using AI to make medical decisions.
Despite these challenges, the potential benefits of AI in healthcare are too great to ignore. As technology continues to advance, we can expect to see even more innovative applications of AI in the field of healthcare, leading to better outcomes for patients and more efficient healthcare systems overall. The COVID-19 pandemic has undoubtedly changed the way we live our lives. From the way we work, socialize, and even grocery shop, the virus has had a profound impact on nearly every aspect of our daily routines. One of the most significant changes has been the shift towards online shopping for groceries.
Before the pandemic, online grocery shopping was not as popular as it is today. Many people preferred to physically go to the store, browse the aisles, and handpick their items. However, with the need for social distancing and the fear of contracting the virus, more and more consumers have turned to online grocery shopping as a safer alternative.
There are several benefits to online grocery shopping that have made it increasingly popular during the pandemic. One of the main advantages is the convenience it offers. Instead of spending hours at the store, customers can simply browse through a website or app, add items to their cart, and have them delivered right to their doorsteps. This not only saves time but also reduces the risk of exposure to the virus.
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Despite its many benefits, online grocery shopping does have some drawbacks. One of the main concerns is the potential for items to be out of stock or substituted with different products. Additionally, some customers may miss the sensory experience of shopping in a physical store, such as smelling fresh produce or selecting the perfect cut of meat.
Overall, the shift towards online grocery shopping is likely to continue even after the pandemic is over. With its convenience, wide selection of products, and contactless delivery options, online grocery shopping has become a preferred method for many consumers. As technology continues to improve and more people become accustomed to this new way of shopping, online grocery stores are likely to become even more popular in the future.
