Artificial snow is made by spraying water into the air and letting it freeze before it hits the ground. It typically contains more air pockets than natural snow, which can make it less dense and more prone to melting. This can create a slick surface that’s challenging for athletes to navigate.
For elite winter athletes like those competing in the Winter Olympics, mastering the art of skiing on artificial snow is becoming increasingly important. As climate change continues to drive temperatures higher and reduce snowfall, athletes will have to adapt to these changing conditions in order to continue competing at a high level.
One technique that athletes like Sarah Cookler are using to navigate artificial snow is adjusting their skiing technique. This may involve using shorter, quicker turns to maintain control on the slippery surface. Athletes may also need to pay closer attention to their equipment, ensuring that their skis are properly tuned and waxed for the conditions.
In addition to adjusting their technique, athletes are also learning to anticipate the changing conditions on artificial snow. This may involve studying weather reports, snow reports, and even satellite images to get a sense of the snow conditions before they hit the slopes.
While skiing on artificial snow may never fully replicate the experience of skiing on natural powder, elite athletes are rising to the challenge and finding ways to excel in these changing conditions. As climate change continues to impact winter sports, the lessons that athletes learn on the slopes may offer valuable insights for the rest of us on how to navigate these environments safely and effectively. Artificial snow, while not as pristine as the real thing, has become a necessary component of many ski resorts around the world. With climate change affecting the predictability of natural snowfall, artificial snow is now a staple in the winter sports industry.
Dr. Molotch, a researcher who studies mountain snowpack and spends a lot of time snowboarding, explains the process of making artificial snow. Machines start producing these frozen microbeads when the air temperature is below -2.5° Celsius. High-pressure hoses spray water into fine mist that quickly freezes into tiny beads. These beads are a mixture of ice and air, but they lack the air content of natural snowflakes.
Natural snow comes in a variety of shapes and sizes, depending on the air temperature and humidity. Different combinations create flakes ranging from simple needles to complex, fernlike branches. Powder snow, a favorite among skiers, forms when ice crystals develop rapidly in humid air.
Competitive athletes must adjust their equipment and technique when skiing or snowboarding on artificial snow. The surface is firmer and more durable than natural snow, allowing for faster times and smoother races. Athletes inspect the racecourse before competing to match their gear with the conditions.
While artificial snow may provide speed advantages, it also leads to harder falls due to its lack of give. Skiers and snowboarders need to train on this type of surface to prepare for races. Climate change has led to less predictable snowfalls, making artificial snow a crucial component of skiing events.
Recreational skiers have the option to ski on natural snow at high-altitude resorts, but many resorts rely on a mix of artificial and natural snow for consistent coverage. Some resorts start making snow in the fall to build up a base reserve in case of late snowfall.
For Dr. Molotch, the risk of falls on artificial snow isn’t worth it, as he has experienced cartilage damage from impacts on hard surfaces. He advises skiers to be aware of the snow conditions and choose their runs wisely.
Competitive ice athletes, on the other hand, mostly compete indoors on ice rinks. Ice quality can vary, affecting the performance of athletes. Soft ice requires more effort to move on, while hard ice can lead to faster speeds.
Overall, understanding the properties of artificial snow and ice is essential for winter sports athletes to compete safely and effectively. As climate change continues to impact snow conditions, artificial snow will remain a crucial element in the winter sports industry. The importance of ice quality in sports like hockey cannot be underestimated. The cold, hard ice that’s perfect for hockey allows players to skate faster and with less effort. “It impacts how quickly the game can be played, how quickly the puck is moving out on the ice and how fast goalies can move from side to side.”
Modern ice rinks and arenas produce different ice for different sports. Figure skaters need softer, warmer ice, which grips their skate blades better. Curlers prefer pebbled ice that reduces surface friction and allows players to better control the trajectory and speed of the curling stone. And speed skaters and hockey players? They ask for a harder, colder surface — durable ice that’s built for speed.
Technicians alter the ice surface by controlling an arena’s ice temperature, humidity, air temperature and ice thickness. The surface is built up layer by layer by spraying a millimeter (four hundredths of an inch) of purified water with each pass. Below the rink, a maze of pipes filled with coolant freezes each layer and keeps the rink frozen. But indoor ice quality can still differ, even in regional and national games where arenas are supposed to follow standards.
“There is no consensus on what is optimal ice,” says Stefania Impellizzeri, a chemist at Toronto Metropolitan University. She was part of a team that surveyed managers of North American ice arenas. Those arenas have no scientific way to accurately measure how they’re meeting the ice standards set by sports leagues, her team found.
That creates an unavoidable variation in ice quality, which athletes must account for as they compete in different places, Koelzer says. “In warmer climates, it’s going to be harder to keep the ice as hard as in colder climates,” she says. “The cooling units that keep the ice frozen have to work so much harder.”
Changing lake ice
While arenas are about ice consistency and competition, skating on frozen ponds and lakes is about having fun. But warming winters are making frozen ponds and lakes potentially unstable — and unsafe.
Lake ice has been forming later and breaking up earlier, shortening the period for safe ice cover, hydrologist Joshua Culpepper of York University in Toronto, Canada, and colleagues reported in 2024 in PLOS One. The team analyzed data for ice thickness in Northern Hemisphere lakes going back to 1850 and projected how conditions might change through the end of this century.
Higher temperatures and changing ice quality will likely lead to between eight and 19 more days of unsafe ice in early winter while early melting will likely add six to eight more days of unsafe ice days in late winter. Globally, there could be an average of five to 29 fewer days that lake ice will be safe to walk or skate on, the team found. The actual number will depend on how much warmer northern winters become.
Perhaps more troubling, ice thickness may no longer serve as a good sign of how safe it is. Some U.S. states recommend that 10 centimeters of new, black ice is safe for people to walk on. Black ice — also called clear ice or blue ice — forms in lakes during calm wind-free, freezing conditions and is the most structurally stable.
When skating on a lake or pond, the surface should ideally be clear ice, as shown here, and a minimum of 10 centimeters thick. Also known as black ice, it is far stronger than white ice, which is becoming more common atop northern lakes.Tom Werner/DigitalVision/Getty Images
White ice develops when snow falls on top of black ice, melts, then refreezes. Thicker layers of white ice on top of black ice could make the surface unstable — even when their total thickness adds up to 10 centimeters, Culpepper and colleagues reported in 2024 in Nature Reviews: Earth & Environment.
“What we’re seeing and what we’re predicting is that climate change is contributing to more white-ice conditions,” says study coauthor Sapna Sharma, a biologist also of York University.
White ice around zero degrees Celsius is about 50 percent weaker than black ice at the same temperature. “So, if you’re out on a lake that had a small layer of black ice and then it snowed a lot,” Culpepper says, “you need twice the recommended ice thickness [for it to be safe].”
Enjoy nature safely
It’s still possible to safely skate outdoors. It just may take a bit more care and caution than a century ago.
Angelina Huang is a retired Team USA figure skater and former gold medalist at the U.S. Nationals competition. Huang now feels freer skating on frozen lakes than she did when she did laps on an ice rink. “It’s a lot less limiting,” she says. “A lot of the lakes that I tend to skate on stretch 10 to 15 miles long.”
Huang makes it a priority to skate on safe, black ice and trains in self-rescue and ice knowledge every year. “I am confident in my training,” she says. But less experienced skaters need to find frozen ponds or lakes that are managed by safety experts. “That way [they] won’t let you on the ice until it’s safe.” And, she emphasizes, it’s important to never skate alone outdoors.
Sharma agrees. And if you’re going to venture onto lake ice, she adds, learn how to swim in cold water.
Koelzer hasn’t skated on a frozen pond or an outdoor rink in more than a decade. But many hockey players do for fun and nostalgia. Enjoy skating in nature but “always have your guard up,” she advises. In this warming world, snow and ice present new challenges: To chill out, you have to tune in to those changes. In recent years, the rise of social media has significantly impacted the way we communicate, connect, and consume information. Platforms like Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and TikTok have become an integral part of our daily lives, allowing us to stay connected with friends and family, share our thoughts and experiences, and discover new content.
One of the key benefits of social media is its ability to bring people together from all corners of the globe. With just a few clicks, we can connect with old friends, make new ones, and engage in conversations with people from different backgrounds and cultures. This has helped to create a more interconnected world, where ideas and information can be shared and spread at lightning speed.
Social media has also changed the way we consume news and information. With the rise of fake news and misinformation, it has become more important than ever to fact-check and verify the information we see online. However, social media has also made it easier for us to access news from a variety of sources, allowing us to stay informed about current events and developments in real-time.
Additionally, social media has revolutionized the way we shop and consume products. Influencers and brands use platforms like Instagram to showcase their products and services, making it easier for consumers to discover and purchase items they love. This has led to the rise of influencer marketing, where brands collaborate with social media personalities to promote their products to a wider audience.
However, the rise of social media has also brought about some challenges. With the constant pressure to curate a perfect online persona, many people experience feelings of inadequacy and comparison when scrolling through their feeds. The rise of cyberbullying and online harassment has also become a major concern, with many individuals facing abuse and negativity from anonymous users.
Despite these challenges, social media remains a powerful tool for connection, communication, and creativity. By using these platforms mindfully and responsibly, we can harness the positive aspects of social media while mitigating the negative impacts. Ultimately, social media has changed the way we interact with the world around us, and its influence will continue to shape our lives for years to come. The world is constantly evolving, and with it, so are the ways in which we interact with each other. In recent years, social media has grown to become one of the most powerful tools for communication and connection. It has revolutionized the way we communicate, share information, and build relationships. With the rise of platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat, we are now more connected than ever before.
Social media has not only changed the way we communicate, but it has also had a profound impact on society as a whole. It has become a powerful tool for spreading information, shaping public opinion, and influencing social and political movements. The Arab Spring, for example, was a series of protests and uprisings in the Middle East and North Africa that were largely organized and spread through social media.
But with great power comes great responsibility. While social media has the potential to bring people together and create positive change, it also has its drawbacks. The spread of fake news and misinformation has become a major issue, with many people using social media platforms to spread false information and manipulate public opinion. This has had serious consequences, leading to increased polarization and division in society.
In addition, social media has been linked to a rise in mental health issues, particularly among young people. The constant pressure to present a perfect image online can lead to feelings of inadequacy, anxiety, and depression. The rise of cyberbullying has also become a major concern, with many people experiencing harassment and abuse online.
Despite these challenges, social media remains a powerful tool for communication and connection. It has the ability to bring people together, amplify voices that may not otherwise be heard, and spark positive change. As we continue to navigate the ever-changing landscape of social media, it is important to use these platforms responsibly and ethically, and to be mindful of the impact our online actions can have on others.
In conclusion, social media has fundamentally changed the way we communicate and interact with each other. It has the power to bring people together, spread information, and shape public opinion. However, it also comes with its own set of challenges, including the spread of misinformation and mental health issues. As we move forward, it is important to use social media responsibly and to be aware of its impact on society. By harnessing the power of social media for good, we can create a more connected and inclusive world for all. The development of artificial intelligence (AI) has been a major breakthrough in technology in recent years. AI refers to the simulation of human intelligence in machines that are programmed to think and learn like humans. This technology has the potential to revolutionize various industries and improve the way we live and work.
One of the key areas where AI is making a significant impact is in healthcare. AI-powered tools and systems are being used to analyze vast amounts of medical data, identify patterns, and make predictions about patient outcomes. This can help doctors and healthcare providers make more accurate diagnoses, develop personalized treatment plans, and improve patient care.
For example, AI algorithms can analyze medical images such as X-rays, CT scans, and MRIs to detect abnormalities and help doctors diagnose diseases such as cancer at an earlier stage. This can lead to more timely treatment and better outcomes for patients. AI can also be used to monitor patient vital signs and detect any signs of deterioration, allowing for early intervention and potentially saving lives.
In addition to diagnosis and treatment, AI is also being used to improve healthcare operations and administrative tasks. AI-powered chatbots and virtual assistants can help patients schedule appointments, access medical information, and receive personalized health recommendations. This can streamline the patient experience and reduce the burden on healthcare staff.
AI is also being used to improve drug discovery and development processes. By analyzing genetic data and identifying potential drug targets, AI can help researchers develop new drugs more quickly and efficiently. This could lead to the development of more effective treatments for a wide range of diseases.
Despite the numerous benefits of AI in healthcare, there are also challenges and concerns that need to be addressed. One of the main concerns is the potential for bias in AI algorithms, which could lead to inaccurate diagnoses or unequal treatment of patients. It is important for developers to ensure that AI systems are trained on diverse and representative data to avoid bias and ensure fairness.
Another challenge is the need for regulations and standards to govern the use of AI in healthcare. As AI technologies continue to evolve and become more widespread, there is a need for clear guidelines to ensure that patient data is protected, AI systems are safe and reliable, and ethical considerations are taken into account.
Overall, the development of AI in healthcare has the potential to transform the way we deliver and receive healthcare services. By harnessing the power of AI, we can improve patient outcomes, reduce healthcare costs, and ultimately improve the quality of care for all. It is important for policymakers, healthcare providers, and technology developers to work together to ensure that AI is used responsibly and ethically to benefit society as a whole.
