Legacy and memory are two important aspects that determine how someone is remembered in history. In the case of Nobel Prize-winning chemist Irving Langmuir and chemist and physicist Katharine Burr Blodgett, their legacies took different paths despite their contributions to science. Langmuir ventured into what he called “pathological science” or “wishful thinking,” while Blodgett continued her work diligently as an experimenter. However, Blodgett’s contributions faded from both the General Electric Company’s and the public’s memory, leading to questions about how someone is forgotten.
Katharine Blodgett, an authority on the properties of very thin coatings and films, made significant contributions to the field of surface chemistry. Her breakthrough discovery of non-reflecting glass in 1938 catapulted her to fame within the scientific community. Despite her achievements, Blodgett gradually faded from public recognition as the decades passed. Today, many people, even those in Schenectady where she lived and worked, do not recognize her name or her contributions to science.
In contrast, Irving Langmuir’s legacy as a Nobel Prize-winning chemist is more widely recognized. Langmuir’s work in various scientific fields, including his collaboration with Blodgett on smoke screens during World War II, cemented his place in scientific history. However, Langmuir’s foray into what some considered “pathological science” raised questions about the limits of scientific exploration and the consequences of chasing unattainable goals.
The story of Katharine Blodgett and Irving Langmuir raises important questions about how legacies are preserved or forgotten. In the case of Blodgett, her contributions to science were overshadowed over time, leading to her name being lost to history. On the other hand, Langmuir’s achievements continue to be celebrated, highlighting the complex nature of scientific recognition and memory.
As we reflect on the lives and legacies of Katharine Blodgett and Irving Langmuir, we are reminded of the importance of recognizing and honoring the contributions of all scientists, regardless of gender or background. By preserving the legacy of trailblazing scientists like Blodgett, we can inspire future generations of inquiring minds and ensure that their contributions are not forgotten. During Katharine Burr Blodgett’s time at General Electric, she played a key role in the development of innovative technologies that would have far-reaching implications. One such project that stood out was the research on creating smoke screens for the armed forces during World War II.
Katharine recalled the challenges they faced during this project, noting that laboratory tests were insufficient. They needed to conduct experiments under field conditions to truly understand the effectiveness of their smoke screens. This led the team to the Schoharie Valley, where they could observe the smoke spreading out over a long distance without interference.
Each morning, Katharine would join her colleagues in the valley, equipped with hot coffee, sandwiches, and a radio to communicate with the team on the hill. While Vince and Irving observed the smoke from above, Katharine operated the radio and relayed important information between the two groups. If the radio failed, her backup plan was simple: just yell.
Despite the early mornings and long days, Katharine enjoyed the fieldwork and the camaraderie with her team. Their efforts paid off immensely when, on D-Day in June 1944, the Allied forces successfully deployed massive vertical “smoke curtains” to protect the invasion fleet from enemy fire.
The success of the smoke screen project inspired Irving Langmuir and his team to delve into even more unconventional science. They transitioned into studying the atmosphere and cloud seeding, a groundbreaking field with the potential to control precipitation.
Vincent Schaefer led the experiments on cloud seeding, using a makeshift freezer lined with black velvet to create ice crystals. By adding dry ice to the mix, they were able to generate snowflakes in the lab. The next step was to test this process in the clouds, which led to the first artificial snowstorm created by dropping dry ice particles from an airplane.
As they continued to experiment with different chemicals, they discovered that silver iodide could also induce ice crystal formation in clouds. However, their ambitious endeavors to control the weather were met with skepticism from the higher-ups at General Electric, who were wary of the potential risks involved.
Despite the challenges and uncertainties, Katharine and her team’s pioneering work in developing smoke screens and cloud seeding technology paved the way for future advancements in atmospheric research. Their dedication and ingenuity left a lasting impact on the scientific community and beyond. In a fascinating turn of events, a company’s decision to hand over a potentially risky project to the government led to the creation of Project Cirrus, a groundbreaking experiment in cloud seeding. General Electric (GE) had concerns that their artificial snowstorm project could lead to accidents on the roads, placing them at legal risk. To distance themselves from any potential liabilities, GE generously opened up all its patents for public use and waived royalty rights, allowing the government to take over the project.
Under the name Project Cirrus, the U.S. Air Force (then known as the Army Air Forces) and the Navy provided aircraft for the experiment, with GE funding most of the work. The government’s interest in the project stemmed from the belief that cloud seeding could potentially be used as a weapon. Various experiments were conducted, including an attempt to manipulate a hurricane. However, this particular experiment did not go as planned, causing the hurricane to change course and wreak havoc on land, much to the dismay of those involved.
Despite the setback, Irving Langmuir, the mastermind behind the project, remained eager to claim success for the experiment. Langmuir’s enthusiasm for controlling the weather was met with skepticism by some, including author Ginger Strand, who believed that the energy in a hurricane was too powerful to be affected by cloud seeding alone. Nonetheless, Langmuir remained undeterred, suggesting that the experiment should be repeated.
Amidst the chaos of Project Cirrus, Katharine, a key figure in the project, remained largely on the sidelines. While the men involved in the experiment engaged in elaborate cloud seeding activities, Katharine focused on her own research in the lab. Her computer skills proved invaluable to the project, as she calculated trajectories of cloud droplets passing objects, a task that remains significant in the field of cloud physics and aircraft de-icing to this day.
Despite the controversy surrounding cloud seeding and its efficacy, Project Cirrus represented a time of scientific exploration and innovation. While Langmuir’s ambitions to control the weather may have seemed far-fetched to some, the project highlighted the spirit of scientific discovery and the endless possibilities that were being explored during that era. Katharine Burr Blodgett, a pioneer in cloud physics, made significant contributions to our understanding of the atmosphere. While she may not have been in the spotlight like her mentor Irving Langmuir, her work behind the scenes was invaluable.
Langmuir, a renowned scientist who won the Nobel Prize for his research in surface chemistry, faced a backlash later in his career due to his controversial theories and scientific obsessions. His lecture on Pathological Science in 1953 highlighted the dangers of wishful thinking in science, but he failed to acknowledge his own missteps.
In his later years, Langmuir collaborated with a little-known chemist, William Mogerman, on a theory linking atoms to cancer, weather, and even totalitarianism. However, their work went unpublished, and Langmuir passed away in 1957 at the age of 76, leaving a void in the scientific community.
Blodgett, who had worked closely with Langmuir, felt the impact of his death deeply. At her retirement dinner in 1963, colleagues praised her dedication and presented her with a farewell gift. Despite her contributions to science, Blodgett remained humble and spoke fondly of Langmuir, emphasizing his influence on her career.
In her later years, Blodgett faced health challenges, but her legacy in cloud physics lived on. She passed away in 1979, leaving behind a rich body of work that continues to inspire future generations of scientists.
While Langmuir’s scientific legacy may have been tarnished by his controversial theories, Blodgett’s dedication to her research and her mentor’s memory remains a shining example of perseverance and passion in the field of atmospheric science. Katharine Burr Blodgett, a pioneering scientist who made significant contributions to the field of physics, passed away at the age of 81. Despite her groundbreaking work in developing nonreflecting glass and the color gauge, her legacy seemed to fade into obscurity after her death. The New York Times published a brief obituary, highlighting her accomplishments as Irving Langmuir’s assistant, but then there was silence.
Katharine’s alma mater, Bryn Mawr, once honored her with a fellowship program established by the General Electric Foundation in 1980. However, the program came to an end in 1993, and the Katharine Blodgett Day in Schenectady, established in 1951, disappeared from the city’s calendar. It seemed as though the memory of Katharine Blodgett was slowly being forgotten.
Despite the lack of recognition, Katharine’s influence continued to inspire others in the scientific community. In 1993, a pamphlet published by GE for a Girl Scout event featured Katharine’s experiments and famous popover recipe, showcasing her dedication to encouraging young women in science. In 2005, Katharine even made a cameo in an episode of The Simpsons, further immortalizing her contributions to science.
In 2008, an elementary school in Schenectady was named after Katharine, but the school was eventually renamed and closed down. However, her great-niece, Marijke Alkema, credited Katharine with inspiring her to become an electrician, highlighting the lasting impact of Katharine’s work on future generations.
Despite efforts to locate her laboratory notebooks, which contained valuable records of her scientific endeavors, they remain missing. The search for Katharine Blodgett’s legacy continues, with hopes of reigniting interest in her groundbreaking contributions to science. As we strive to shine a light on forgotten female scientists like Katharine, we aim to ensure that their impact is recognized and celebrated in the broader world. Katharine Burr Blodgett, a name that may not be familiar to many, but one that deserves to be remembered. Despite the lack of physical remnants of her work, the legacy of this pioneering scientist lives on in the materials and technologies that shape our modern world.
Blodgett’s story begins in 1918 when she was hired as a scientist at the General Electric Company’s research laboratory. At just 20 years old, she was a prodigy in her field, breaking barriers as a woman in a male-dominated industry. Her contributions to the development of materials such as screens, lenses, and electronic devices laid the foundation for many of the innovations we rely on today.
But as time passes and memories fade, it becomes increasingly important to preserve the history of trailblazers like Blodgett. History is not just a record of past events, but a reflection of who we are and how we came to be. By remembering the achievements of figures like Blodgett, we honor the collaborative spirit of scientific inquiry and pave the way for future generations to build upon her work.
One poignant moment in Blodgett’s story is her final resting place at Mt. Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Despite the challenges of finding her grave on a rainy day, the journey to pay tribute to this remarkable woman serves as a reminder of the impact she had on the world.
The name “Katharine Burr Blodgett” may not be a household name, but it carries with it a legacy of innovation and perseverance. By sharing her story and ensuring that her contributions are not forgotten, we continue to celebrate the spirit of discovery and exploration that defined her life.
As we look to the future and the choices we make about who we remember and why, the story of Katharine Burr Blodgett serves as a beacon of inspiration. Her legacy reminds us that history is not just a collection of names and dates, but a testament to the power of knowledge and the impact of one individual’s determination to make a difference. Our organization receives funding from a variety of sources, including the Alfred P Sloan Foundation, the Anne Wojcicki Foundation, and generous individual donors. This financial support allows us to continue our work in highlighting the stories of lost women of science.
If you’re interested in learning more about our mission and supporting our cause, please visit our website at lostwomenofscience.org. Don’t forget to click on the donate button to help us further our research and projects.
We are excited to announce that a special bonus episode is coming soon. We are collaborating with the Science History Institute to bring you a fascinating story about Agnes Pockels, a self-taught materials scientist from the 19th century. Her work was instrumental in the discoveries made by Katharine, particularly in the realm of dish soap.
I’m Katie Hafner, and I look forward to sharing more stories with you in the future.
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Elementary School Kids:
“We are the Katharine Burr Blodgett Beagles, I am somebody, I am somebody. Who am I? I am somebody. I am proud and capable and lovable, I am teachable and learn easily…”
Senior Producer and Host:
Katie Hafner
Producers:
Natalia Sánchez Loayza
Sophia Levin
Associate Producer:
Hannah Sammut
Guests
George Wise
George Wise is a former communications specialist at the GE Research and Development Center in Schenectady. He is also a historian of science and technology, and the author of The Old GE (2024).
Ginger Strand
Ginger Strand is an American author of nonfiction and fiction. She is the author of the 2015 nonfiction book, The Brothers Vonnegut: Science and Fiction in the House of Magic.
David Kaiser
David Kaiser is a professor of physics and the history of science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Marijke Alkema
Marijke Alkema is Katharine Burr Blodgett’s great niece.
Gary McCarthy
Gary McCarthy has served as Mayor of Schenectady since April 2011. He co-chairs the Center for Economic Growth’s Capital Region Local Government Council and previously served as President of the New York State Conference of Mayors.
Meg Winslow
Meg L. Winslow is Senior Curator of Historical Collections & Archives at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Meg is co-author with Melissa Banta of The Art of Commemoration and America’s First Rural Cemetery: Mount Auburn’s Significant Monument Collection.
Further Reading
The Brothers Vonnegut: Science and Fiction in the House of Magic. Ginger Strand. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2015
Fixing the Sky: The Checkered History of Weather and Climate Control. James Rodger Fleming. Columbia University Press, 2010
American Women of Science. Edna Yost. Frederick A. Stokes, 1943
The Old GE: 1886–1986. George Wise. Schenectady County Historical Society, 2024
The Lively Place: Mount Auburn, America’s First Garden Cemetery, and Its Revolutionary and Literary Residents. Stephen Kendrick, Beacon Press, 2016
Feel free to explore these resources for more information on the fascinating world of science and history. Artificial intelligence (AI) has quickly become a prominent technology in today’s world, revolutionizing various industries and changing the way we live and work. From virtual assistants like Siri and Alexa to self-driving cars and advanced medical diagnostics, AI is making significant advancements in a wide range of fields.
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