In his seminal essay “Of the Independency of Parliament,” dating back to around 1741, David Hume champions the Enlightenment principle that constitutions ought to presume individuals, including those in political office, are primarily motivated by self-interest, with an inherent tendency to exploit their authority. A particularly striking excerpt states:
In designing any governmental framework and establishing the necessary checks and balances within the constitution, one must presume that every individual is a knave, solely driven by personal gain in all their actions.
This perspective mandates that a constitution be inherently “knavish,” meaning it should incorporate checks and balances that ensure the self-serving motives of some—Hume notably references the executive—are kept in check by others, particularly those in the legislature. Modern public choice theory echoes this sentiment, asserting that political analysis must start from the premise that politicians are as self-interested as the average citizen. For those interested in a deeper exploration of the concept of “knavish constitutions,” I recommend Brian Kogelmann’s article, “In Defense of Knavish Constitutions,” published in Public Choice (Vol. 196, 2023, pp. 141-156).
However, it seems Hume may have underestimated the potential perils posed by the chief executive, especially in an era where state power has reached unprecedented levels. A ruler could prove more hazardous than a mere knave if they are afflicted by significant character flaws or cognitive limitations. Were Hume to reemerge in the modern world, one might gently propose that he amend his thesis to include an observation such as:
It is not outside the realm of possibility for a ruler, whether elected or otherwise, to be an ignorant idiot.
Hume was likely aware of such dangers. Historical figures like Caligula (emperor from 37 to 41 AD) and Nero (ruling from 54-68 AD) exemplify the risks associated with unchecked power. Caligula, a “mad and unpredictable tyrant,” ultimately faced assassination at the hands of his own Praetorian Guard. Nero, who rose to power through the same military faction, notoriously orchestrated the killings of his own mother and first wife. His theatrical pursuits as a poet and musician were overshadowed by his belief, following a frontier revolt, that “I have only to appear and sing to have peace once more in Gaul.”
While Hume might dismiss my suggested addition as overly provocative for his scholarly tone, it’s worth noting that “knave” was a term laden with negative connotations during his lifetime, a point he underscored in his writing. My proposed clarification simply aims to amplify awareness regarding the potential dangers of concentrated personal power.
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Statue of David Hume in Edinburgh
